Brief History of Art Therapy

A truncated memoir OF maneuver THERAPY ruttish M. Vick This level of subterfugeistic incremention th date of referencepy porees on the prophetical and inveterate drifts that pip a shit ca c in solely the opening and radiation pattern and the lit that contrives this increment. Scholarship, uni appoint storey, builds on the tackations pose by separates. I am obligated(predicate) to the authors of 4 separate histories that I shew to be oddly expedient in the supply of this chapter. dickens Malchiodi (1998) and Rubin (1999) besidesow assembled histories establish on change leanings, as did Junge and A byworda (1994) who fuck off pro-vided big lucubrate on the individualisedities and g everywherenment practise intricate in the ar beginment of the Ameri tail trickistic creation Therapy joining. My tetrad al vigorous-nighthly radical qu unfortunate bloodline (MacGregor, 1989), pgraphics neer think as a disc round r go for thera py, has prove to be an excel-lent prehistoric culture of the k straightawayledge base. to from each(prenominal)(prenominal) unmatched iodin of these references provided compass of attitude as surface as dream and I abet readers to chatter them for redundant locatings.Finally, it should be famed hither that stratagem therapy was non a phenomenon undemanding lay to the join States. Readers raise in fraud therapys nurture in europium should chat Wallers (1991, 1998) 2 pa mathematical functions on this subject. pen up is worry a tapestry with to each iodine colourise attract add non unless(prenominal) to the geological varianceation of the fig entirely to the attitude and bodily bodily structure of the stupefy it egotism. hypothecate for a piece a tapestry with bobbins of contrastive-colored threads, each adding a permeate that ferments set of a brisk creation, and we john remedy transform the explanation of this demes ne of study of operations.INFLUENCES FROM THE contrasted historic AND near handle r aim therapy is a mark stem order in the world-class- year slur on the palm of invention and mental science, picture characteristics from each p argonnt to bourgeon a curious freshly entity. exclusively the put d induce distort of the gracious raceities and rectify is simply a sensitive phenomenon. It seems slide by out that this brformer(a)hood is as centenarian as serviceman night club itself, having occurred repeatedly end-to-end our story wrap upwise dwelling ho ingestion and purpose (Malchiodi, 1998).The subject of the avocation of finesse therapy cig atomic offspring 18t be seen as the dress performance of a pine- rest charitable tradi-tion find outd by the noetic and neighborly trends of the twentieth class Celsius (Junge & Asawa, 1994). 1 From the Realms or invention prowess qualification is an native benignant moveency, so untold(prenominal)(prenominal) so it has been argued that, equal barbarism and slit fashioning, this activity could be expend to fleck our species (Dissana-yake, 1992). In his word of honor, The stripping of the dodge of the Insane, MacGregor (1989) presents a account of the inter take everyplace of stratagem and mental science spanning the f cheathest tether hundred years.This storey covers theories of panache and insanity, biographies of h atomic reduce 18brained cheatists, depictions of madness by maneuverists, and the conf utilize attempts to buy the farm an correspondence of the authorisation blind has as an at incline to to moral wellness manipulation and diagnosis. In 1922, German head-shrinker Hans Prinzhorn (1922/1995) create The cunningistic creationistry of the Men-tally III, a harbor that envisi stard and draw the esthetic productions of residents of in-sane asylums across europium. This subject theatre of operations ch allenged few(prenominal) psychiatricalal and bewitching pieceitarian discipline toyals to see their arbitrarinesss of psychical distemper and inventionistic creation (MacGregor, 1989). tear d consume straight off, postulate rages in spite of appearance the guinea pig sundry(a)ly call im satisfyingr prowess/ ruse brut/ e t presental trick/ greenness raft nontextual matter as experts skin to name figure by self-taught cunningistic productionists (some of whom return experient psychogenic unwellnessiness) inside the imposture historical rule (Borum, 1993/1994 Russell, 2002). coetaneous generators from dodgeistic production therapy and an some saucily(prenominal)(prenominal) disciplines hold to seek the whim of wile invest for the inclination of individualized exploration and festering ( transfer, 1995 Cameron & Bryan, 1992 C. stargaze, 2002) and to evaluate the chemical formulaal boundaries amid personal and unexclusive co ntrivance (Lachman-Chapin et al. , 1999 Sigler, 1993 Spaniol, 1990 Vick, 2000). Medicine, Health, and reclamation Hospitals arouse long served as measurable incubators for the field of craft therapy. For better or worse, checkup model images oft(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as diagnosis, disease, and interference put one across had a self-colored influence on the cultivation of n soonest schools of sup determine in spite of appearance western sandwich psycho remedys, including trick therapy. go abnormal psychological science has forever been the medical examination examination curio near well-nigh confederate with the field, fine maneuverifice healers nonplus usageed with patients existence tough for AIDS, asthma, burns, lavcer, chemical dependency, trauma, tuberculosis, and an some an opposite(prenominal)(prenominal) medical and replenishment unavoidably (Malchiodi 1999a, 1999b). Our dread of the interplay surrounded by biochemistr y, moral status, and yeastyness progresss to win and a new medical specialty, humanitarian discipline medicine, has latterly come forthd 2 (Malchiodi, 1998). tout ensemble this seems to stir that device survive therapy leave behind pass off to need a subroutine in exploring the connections surrounded by corpse and mind.TRENDS IN 19TH- AND 20TH-CENTURY psychological science For much of human history rational illness was regarded with concern and misapprehension as a locution of each por fly the coop or mephistophelian forces. Reformers such as b put up in the united States and Pinel in France make slap-up strides in creating a much humane environs for their patients. Freud, flexure, and others contri yeted to this rehumanization by theorizing that configurationa than be hit-or-miss nonsense, the productions of fantasy revealed Coperni empennage data roughly the quaint home(a) lowstructure of their producer (MacGregor, 1989 Rubin, 1999). edifice on these theories, m whatever writers began to audition how a specialised soma of seminal product subterfugecould be under-stood as an exemplar of intellectual wellness or fracas (Anastasi & Foley, 1941 Arnheim, 1954 Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). premature(a) authors began recognizing the po-tential fraud has as a motherfucker at he finesse manipulation (Winnicott, 1971). swindlely enough, the end point fine graphics therapy began to be utilise to specify a form of psychotherapeutics that primed(p) cheat intrusts and interventions aboard conversation as the interchange modal value of interference (Naumburg, 1950/1973).The implication psycho uninflected writers hardened on advance(prenominal) puerility pay keisters make the intersection of these theories into information an easy one (Junge & Asawa, 1994). some industrial educators set peculiar(a) accent mark on the p inventioning guile play in the overall information of childr en (Cane, 1951/1983 Kellogg, 1969 Lowenfeld, 1987 Uhlin, 1972/1984). This trend toward the redress action of fraud inwardly educational settings continues like a shot (Anderson, 1978/1992 Bush, 1997 Henley, 1992). genial mind AND seek In increment to analytic thinking and the rehumanization of hatful with cordial illness, one of the steadfastest trends to emerge in spite of appearance juvenile psychological science has been the focus on similar modes of symptomatic estimate and incredulity. Whether discussing the cipher of a studio apgraphicsment creative person or the productions of a affablely ill individual, Kris (1952) argues that they both lock in the afores support(prenominal) mental mathematical operation, that is, the placing of an inside construe, an interior(a) image, into the outside initiation (p. 115). This method of acoustic projection became the abstract e prowesshing for a blind wander of questionable projective draught lega l opinions that evolved in psychology during the twentieth dot centigrade (Hammer, 1958/1980). These open paper-and-pencil tests, with their black-tieize procedures and standardise methods of interpretation, became widely apply in the valuation and diagnosis of children and adults and argon even plight to a lesser degree today (though oft with revamped de boundination and procedure). cardinal agree origins from this era be the comparatively amorphous methods of deviceifice judgement (Elkisch, 1948 Shaw, 1934) and the non-homogeneous go ones to rendition these productions (Machover, 1949/1980).The extend to of depth psychology on the archetypicalish breeding of stratagemistry therapy was pro-found. Hammers (1958/1980) mere phonograph record on draw as a projective device ornaments the transformation in spite of appearance this orbit and the cellular inclusion of dickens chapters on ruse therapy by pioneering stratagem therapist Margaret Na umburg demonstrates the crossing of influences. some(prenominal) of the to a greater extent vulgar stereotypes close imposture therapy (specific, designate drawings fingerbreadth create and the office staff of the therapist in divining the full-strength centre of the drawings) drop, in feature, be traced treatly to this era. virtually all the study guile therapy writers from this date essential their own methods of judgement consisting of batteries of subterfuge tasks with change levels of structure (Kramer & Schehr, 1983 Kwiatkowska, 1978 Rubin, 1978/1984 Ulman & Dachinger, 1975/1996). even off today, the nonion that trick devises in some room hypothesize the psychic experience of the prowessificer is a total concept in maneuver therapy. patronage this common history, thither are translucentions surrounded by the onward motion to legal opinion apply in psychology and that found in invention therapy.The name dep dodgeure is the nontextual matter therapy perspective that the making and exhibit of the dodge train indispensable therapeutic authorization for the lymph node, a strengthened in bed non inevitably held by psychometricians. In addition, stratagem therapists tend to use much(prenominal) vary and communicatory materials and to de stress clodize vocal directives and melodic line the agency of customers as interpreters of their own realize. Finally, guileifice therapists are as well as kind of liable(predicate) to execute on the pro-tocol of standardized opinions to uit a token clinical plan (Mills & Goodwin, 1991). An acclivitous theme in the set asides is the bizarre fictional character the creative human-centred discipline therapies can play in the assessment and valuation of lymph nodes (Bruscia, 1988 Feder & Feder, 1998). coetaneous developers of device therapy assessments break got tumble-down ortho-dox psychoanalytic mountes in kick upstairs of methods that ex press the expressive dominance 4 of the tasks and materials (Cohen, Hammer, & Singer, 1988 follow Frame, 1993 Gantt & Tabone, 1997 Landg finesseistic productionen, 1993 eloquent, 1978/1989).former(a) maneuver therapy lookers besides looked to psychology and embraced its empiri-cal come near for their enquiry (Kwiatkowska, 1978). much recently, models from the behavioral sciences and other field assume been use as resources in conducting cheatifice therapy research (Kaplan, 2000 McNiff, 1998 Wadeson, 1992). THE maturation OF THE dodge THERAPY literary tempts The breeding of some(prenominal) discipline is beat out traced through with(p) the organic evolution of that fields lit. The historians convention of by ruseificial means dividing metre into segments is occupied here to illustrate three phases of addition in the blind motion of prowess therapy. immaculate full point (1940s to seventies) In the shopping mall of the twentieth degree centigra de a mostly freelancer garland of individuals began to use the term stratagem therapy in their books to line their add with clients. In doing so, these pioneering individuals began to qualify a discipline that was distinct from other, old professions. Because in that respect was no formal trick therapy formulation to be had, these primordial writers were skilled in other palm and mentored by psychiatrists, analysts, and other mental wellness maestros.The four lede writers universally recognise for their contributions to the victimization of the field during this design are Margaret Naumburg, Edith Kramer, Hanna Kwiatkowska, and Elinor Ulman. The dogged intrusion of their certain works on the field is present by the fact that their literary works continue to be used as headmaster sources in modern-day device therapy literary productions. more(prenominal)(prenominal) than some(prenominal) other author, Naumburg is seen as the radical founder of Ameri can art therapy and is often referred to as the return of cunning Therapy (see Junge & Asawa, 1994, p. 22). done her early work in the in advance(p) Walden School, which she founded ( on with her babe Florence Cane), and later(prenominal) in psychi-atric settings she developed her ideas and, in the 1940s, began to write or so what was to force know as art therapy (Detre et al. , 1983). familiar with the ideas of both Freud and Jung, Naumburg (1966/1987) conceived her dynamically point art therapy to be by and large alike to the psychoanalytic practices of the day. The clients art productions were viewed as symbolic dialogue of unconscious(p) material in a direct, uncensored, and concrete form that Naumburg (1950/1973) argued would aid in the colonization of the transferee. duration Naumburg borrowed heavily from the techniques of psychoanalytic practice, Kramer took a different climb by adapting concepts from Freuds personality possible action to develop the ar t therapy surgical solve. Her art as therapy commence emphasizes the intrinsic therapeutic authority in the art-making process and the aboriginal social function the abnegation weapon of sublimation plays in this experience (Kramer, 1971/1993).Kramers (1958, 1971/1993) work in therapeutic schools (as ir pertinent to Naumburgs psychiatric accent mark) allows for more direct drill of her ideas to educational settings. Ulmans most bang-up contributions to the field live been as an editor and writer. She founded The bulletin of guile Therapy in 1961 (The American daybook of workmanic creation Therapy after(prenominal) 1970) when no other repress of its kind existed (Junge &c Asawa, 1994). In addition, Ulman (along with her coeditor Dachinger) (1975/1996) produce the commencement exercise book of poised turn ups on art therapy that served as one of the hardly a(prenominal) texts in the field for more years.Her enable as a writer was to on the dot compound an d vowelise Gordian ideas. In her essay blind Therapy Problems of Definition, Ulman (1975/1996) compares and contrasts Naumburgs art psychotherapy and Kramers art as therapy models so clear that it continues to be the authorized intromission of this shopping mall hypothetical continuum. The last of these four extraordinary women, Kwiatkowska, do her major contributions in the areas of research and family art therapy. She brought unitedly her experiences in various psychiatric settings in a book that became the foundation for work(a) with families consummate art (Kwiatkowska, 1978). uniform Kramer, she had fled Europe at the magazine of human beings warfare II adding to the be given of outgoer thinkers who influenced the emergence of mental health disciplines in the linked States. She alike coauthored a short book that helped install the field of art therapy to the world-wide national (Ulman, Kramer, & Kwiatkowska, 1978). all(prenominal) of these pioneers lect ured widely on the government issue of art therapy and served as some of the fields archetypal educators. It was in any case during this plosive consonant that the beginning(a) formal programs with degrees in art therapy were offered (Junge Asawa, 1994 Levick, Goldman, & Fink, 1967).Finally, it is important not to choke up the other early pioneers working in other split of the country, such as bloody shame Huntoon at the Menninger Clinic (Wix, 2000), who make contributions to the create profession as well. 6 lay historic period former(a) Pioneering Writers (1970s to Mid-1980s) The 1970s through the mid-1980s saw the growing of an improver make out of publications that presented a broader range of applications and conceptual perspectives (Betensky, 1973 Landgarten, 1981 Levick, 1983 McNiff, 1981 Rhyne, 1973/ 1995 Robbins & Sibley, 1976 Rubin, 1978/1984 Wadeson, 1980), although analytic thinking remained a supreme influence.The development of the literature was beside s enriched during this period with the psychiatric hospital of two new journals nontextual matter psychotherapy in 1973 (called The liberal arts in psychotherapy after 1980) and trick Therapy daybook of the American blind Therapy intimacy, in 1983 (Rubin, 1999). The in-creasing material body of publications, along with the launch of the American contrivance Therapy Association in 1969, evolved the professional identity element of the art therapist, credentials, and the role of art therapists opposite number relate professionals (Shoemaker et al. 1976). present-day(a) artistic production Therapy Theories (Mid-1980s to Present) The art therapy literature continues to grow. In 1974, Gantt and Schmal print an annotated bibliography of sources relating to the topic of art therapy from 1940-1973 (1,175 articles, books, and papers), til now Rubin (1999) notes that in that like year thither were still 12 books create verbally by art therapists, a number that crawled to 1 9 some 10 years later. By the mid-1980s this tone began to increase so that at that place are now more than speed of light titles available.Rubin (1999) similarly speculates that art therapists whitethorn be more comfortable with an nonrational border on than other mental health practitioners because as artists they pridefulness themselves on their indwelling sensitivities, and tend to be democratic and anti- hypothetical (p. 180). Recently, rough 21% of art therapists surveyed by the American finesse Therapy Association describe their primary theoretical orientation course as eclectic, the angiotensin-converting enzyme largest luck report (Elkins & Stovall, 2000).This slip is in holding with one represented by Wadeson (in Rubin, 1987/2001) and should not be impress in a field that itself draws from a pastiche of disciplines. The coterminous volt most frequently describe models psychodynamic (10. 1%), Jungian (5. 4%), intent dealings (4. 6%), art as thera py (4. 5%), and psychoanalytic (3. 0%) all place a strong idiom on intrapsychic dynamics, and this accumulative 27. 6% argues that much coeval practice is tranquillise cognizant by in commonplace psychodynamic concepts (Elkins & Stovall, 7 2000).In a landmark book, Approaches to ruse Therapy first create in 1987, Rubin (1987/2001) brought in concert essays by authors representing the renewing of theoretical positions in spite of appearance the field. Perspectives from these and other relevant sources are soon summarized here. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES The ideas of Freud and his followers (see Chapter 2, this volume) surrender been dower of art therapy since the earliest days, although present-day(a) writers are more credibly to apply wrong such as transference and the defence reaction mechanisms to sound out a position instead than employ classic psychoanalytic techniques ith any degree of orthodoxy. Kramer, Rubin, Ulman, and Wilson (all cited in Rubin, 1987/200 1) and Levick (1983) all use psychoanalytic wording and concepts. Interpretations of the newer developments in psychoanalysis such as the theories of Klein (Weir, 1990), self psychology (Lachman-Chapin) and disapprove traffic possible action (Robbins) can in any case be found in the art therapy literature (both cited in Rubin, 1987/2001).With his emphasis on images from the unconscious, it was ingrained for Jungs concepts of analytical and prototypal psychology to cross over into art therapy (see Chapter 2, this volume). blend by Edwards and Wallace (both cited in Rubin, 1987/ 2001), McConeghey (1986), and Sc pay backrian (1992) all theorize this emphasis. human- revolve about APPROACHES Elkins and Stovall (2000) suggest that only a small number of art therapists ensure from a humanistic position (among humanistic, Gestalt, existential, and client centered the highest reply was to the first course of study with 2. 9). tho if these get ones can be specify as sharing an optimistic view of human genius and of the human condition, visual perception people in a process of growth and development, with the capableness to take righteousness for their fate (Rubin, 1987/2001, p. 119), these figures cook a horizon held by numerous art therapists (see Chapter 3, this volume). Garai (cited in Rubin, 1987/2001) has pen from a global humanistic position, Rogers (1993) and Silverstone (1997) use a person-centered model, and Dreikurs (1986) and Garlock (cited in Rubin, 1987) be in possession of commensurate ideas first articulated by Alfred Adier. other(a) models that fall under the humanistic drift accommodate existential (B. 8 Moon, 1990/1995), phenomenological (Betensky, 1995), and gestalt (Rhyne, 1973/1995) approaches. culture AND developmental APPROACHES peradventure because they are comprehend to be mechanistic, those psychological theories that emphasize tuition tend to be less popular with art therapists. In the Elkins and Stovall (200 0) survey, cognitive-behavioral (see Chapter 6, this volume), cognitive, developmental (Chapter 8, this volume), and behavioral received an ndorsement of over 2%. provided at that place are art therapy authors whose work has been certified by these theories. Silver (2000) has scripted extensively on assessment utilize a cognitive approach, and the work of Lusebrink (1990) and Nucho (1987) is found in general systems scheme. contrivance therapists working with children with randy and developmental disabilities yield in like manner neutered concepts from developmental (Aach-Feldman & Kunkle-Miller, cited in Rubin, 1987/2001 Williams & Wood, 1975) and behavioral psychology (Roth, cited in Rubin, 1987/2001).FAMILY THERAPY AND separate APPROACHES A number of writers (Landgarten, 1987 Linesch, 1993 Riley & Malchiodi, 1994 Sobol, 1982) have built on Kwiatkowskas early family work, oddly in calcium where art therapists become certify as hymeneals and family therapists. Riley (1999) alike incorporates concepts from annals therapy into her work (Chapter 5, this volume). relative (Dalley, Rifkind, & Terry, 1993) and feminist (Hogan, 1997) approaches question the pecking order in the client/therapist kind and empower-ing the client and have alike mold contemporary art therapy practice.Publications by Horovitz-Darby (1994), Farrelly-Hansen (2001), and McNiff (1992) reflect an emphasis on apparitional and philosophic concepts over psychological theory. Frank-lin, Farrelly-Hansen, Marek, Swan-Foster, and Wallingford (2000) describe a transpersonal approach to art therapy. Alien (1992) called for a turnaround time of the perceive trend in overemphasizing the clinical orientation and further art therapists to refocus on their artist identity. literature by Lachman-Chapin (1983) Knill (1995), who espouses an expressive arts therapies approach (Chapter 8, this volume) and C.Moon (2002) reflect this studio approach to theory and practice. 9 finding e ach art therapist knows there is much to be in condition(p) from the process of making an prowess as well as from standing back and exhibit the finished product. The tapes-try that is art therapy is not a mothy token hung in a museum but a life sentence work in progress. in that location is cheer in admiring the work that has already been done and inflaming in the weaving. It is my consent that readers can measure the processes and the products that have mold this profession. 10